Copyright © 2009 by Chester B Cabalza. All Rights Reserved.
This paper was chosen in the 6th International Convention of Asia Scholars in South Korea on 6-9 August 2009 but the author declined to attend due to the effects of global financial crisis.
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I. Introduction
A rose is a rose by any other name, so it is said, and this holds true to the Korean War. South Koreans call it “6.25 War” in reference to its starting date: June 25, while North Koreans remember it as “Fatherland Liberation War”. China refers to it as “War to resist America and Aid to Korea” and the United States, because it had to officially treat it as police action to avoid the need for the declaration of war by the US Congress, called it the “Korean Conflict”. Sometimes it is referred to as “The Forgotten War” because, despite its being a major one too, it was overshadowed by the preceding and succeeding World War II and Vietnam War, respectively.
Need no further elaboration on historical accounts to the division of the two Koreas, thus, the Korean War as part and parcel of the Cold War had the effect of strengthening the alliances in the Western camp especially for South Korea or the Republic of Korea (ROK) under the aegis of the Americans.
Regrettably, Ambassador Sung-oh Shin is disconcerted that in reality Korea is a divided country. Now that Germany and Vietnam are unified, Korea remains the sole nation divided as the victim of the Cold War. He confesses that [South] Koreans were indoctrinated through the bitter experience of the Korean War that the other Korea is the foremost enemy. At the same time, however, there remains a strong sense of brotherhood between South and North Koreans. Therefore, the dilemma of South Korea’s [defense] diplomacy has always been how to contain the dangerous North Korea without jeopardizing the prospect of eventual peaceful unification.
But fast forward today, managing the Koreas, according to Kishore Mahbubani, he prescribes that the fourth pillar for US policy toward East Asia should be Korea. Aside from the inclusion of North Korea as “axis of evil” under the Bush administration, succeeding six-party multilateral talks among nuclear powers around the region and former opposing world’s superpowers. Additionally, he describes that the US also has a pressing need to cement its relations with South Korea given a strong anti-Americanism has surged dramatically in recent years, in spite of a large portion of South Korean’s elite studied at US universities.
II. Miracle on the Han River
The rugs-to-riches tale of South Korea as one of Asia’s poorest countries in 1950s was attributed to the twin after-effects of the Japanese occupation and the Korean War. It was once a bleak country with shattered infrastructures and drained resources that were exploited during those horrific historical periods. Despite initial economic handicaps and political woes, however, South Korea eventually achieved rapid economic growth and began to rise as one of the formidable tiger economies in Asia (joining the ranks of Taiwan, HongKong and Singapore).
Affirming the role of General Park Chung-hee who led a junta, he later embarked his vision on economic development in 1962 and South Korea became for four decades one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. From a poor developing country to a developed state, South Korea’s economy relied much on heavy industry and automotive industry during the 1970s and 1980s; and continuously transformed its economic outputs as a lead exporter of electronics, telecommunications, shipbuilding, and steel in 1990s; but now high-tech products like digital monitors, mobile phones and semiconductors have driven its economy in the future. Chaebols like Samsung, Hundai Kia Automotive Group and LG have become global brand names, sometimes outpacing in sales and quality some former superior Japanese electronics and automotive products.
South Korea is by far considered as one of the leading producers of knowledge in science and technology transparent through its lead in Information Technology (IT), massive Internet services per household, biotechnology, machinery and robotics. Time Magazine (July 2008) places South Korea as a mecca for computer gaming, where matches of young professional leagues are broadcast around the clock on dedicated channels for millions of viewers, hence top-notch players are worshiped as rock stars. Meanwhile, it has boosted its image as a sporting capital when it hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul and co-sponsored with Japan the 2002 FIFA World Cup.
By and large, the spark of South Korea’s emergence as a major and significant economic power in the deterritorialized community of the 21st century has given birth to a new type of culture in Asia, called “hallyu” / “harnyu” or the “Korean Wave” and morphed into a beautiful cultural phenomenon as a chief springboard of popular culture today.
Hallyu as a cultural concept itself has divisive bearing on its origin. Some would claim that it was coined in China in 1999 by Beijing journalists startled by the growing popularity of South Koreans and South Korean goods in China. In contrast hallyu, argued by Professor Kang Chul-keun, originated from popular music, passing through phenomenal soap operas and films embracing Korean culture as a whole. Above everything else, he disputed however, TV soap operas are considered to have taken the front creating this Korean Wave. Thus, exports of Korean soap operas have seen remarkable growth since 2000.
Because of massive development and unprecedented progress, [South] Korea has used its turn around story as a window to simultaneously craft its intelligent foreign policies using soft power diplomacy in easing the tension between its giant and powerful neighbors of China and Japan. This soft power diplomacy that may have executed by South Korea has been well received liberally by its friendly Southeast Asian neighbors as well.
III. Korea’s Soft Power Diplomacy
This paper addresses the argument that Korea’s Soft Power Diplomacy has paved way positively to the looming relations of South Korea in particular to its East Asian neighbors, especially in the fields of culture, albeit there are still many obstacles to prevent distrust and enmity, thus also improving relations in other areas like in defense, politics and economics.
“Soft power” proponent Professor Joseph Nye, Jr. deems that this is the ability to get “others to want what you want”. It is indeed a co-optive power, magnetizing others rather than manipulating their actions through force or bribery. Professor Nye is, however, quick to differentiate “soft power” from influence. He wrote, “Soft power is not merely the same as influence. After all, influence can also rest on the hard power of threats or payment. However, soft power is the ability to attract, and attraction often leads to acquiescence. Simply put, in behavioral terms, soft power is attractive power.”
Sandwiched between two strong and great states under the Sinitic civilization, the two Koreas tried to gauge its own identity after Korea acted as a bridge to Japan that introduced the Chinese/Sinic culture since its early dynasties, argued by Rhoads Murphey (2003). Despite the strong rivalry of hard power in Northeast Asia since the World War II and enmity brought by forceful and harsh treatment by its Japanese brothers, South Korea has slowly created a certain brand, “Made in Korea”, and had since brushed its image using the tools of Soft Power Diplomacy. Notwithstanding South Korea’s economic achievements and stable democracy, John Lei and Myongkyu Park (2005:56-57) have argued that, instead South Koreans being content and ecstatic, its citizens remain wracked by the legacy of conflicts from the Cold War years, and the national mood is somber and subdued, with continuing concerns over North Korea, deepening social cleavages, and crises of the family and society. Adding that North Korea remains a looming presence in South Korean politics while China and Japan are closely watched to tame their economic and military rivals, co-existing in a clear and present danger zone.
In 2005 Korea (both by north and south) denounces Japan for trying to glorify and distort its own military aggression, referring to Japanese history and civic studies textbooks used to educate young Japanese students. But enmity between Japan and Korea was temporarily overshadowed by historical memories due to the influence of soft power diplomacy of the “hanryu”.
A case in point was the arrival of the most famous South Korean TV star, Bae Yong-joon, in 2004 in Japan. He was adored by Japanese fans who were mostly women and his visit was guarded by 150 bodyguards, 350 police and additional 70 riot police that caught the eyes of the media by major stations in Japan like the Nippon Television Network Broadcast, the Tokyo Broadcasting System, and NHK (Herald Biz, 2004-11-26, Korea Times, 2004-11-25). It was also believed that “Japan is the last country in northeast Asia to fall under the influence of all things Korean, from pop music to fashion, dubbed as the Korean Wave”.
Ambassador Sung-oh Shin (1999) views that Japan shares, to a large extent, Korea’s concern for security against North Korea. As such Japan provides an overall diplomatic support to Korea on how to manage North Korea.
Korea's popular culture has also presented an important cultural freedom, in which individuals are allowed to talk about conflicts between generations, nationalism, globalism and gender issues. Take the case of "Winter Sonata," which became wildly popular in Japan in 2003. This soap opera has raised the level of favorable interest toward Korea in Japan that has never been witnessed in any previous efforts, including governmental summits. Middle-aged Japanese women were behind the soap opera craze and the "Yonsama" phenomenon from the explosive popularity of actor Bae Yong-joon. Through the soap opera, Japan and other nations have identified their desire for intimacy in relationships, which has been the driving force in the expanded interest in Korean culture and society (www.Korea.net).
Professor Kang Chul-keun even pitch in that for the first time, Asians have a genuine cultural exchange vehicle through hallyu. He believes that regardless of ethnicity and nationality, they share the same sentiments while watching Korean soap operas and films. They indeed feel the quality of the effort that is put into such projects, and now have found answers to their thirst for sophisticated cultural products. This is not a temporary phenomenon, and it should not be underestimated. A single TV soap opera that depicted a true love between a man and a woman helped dissipate deep-rooted prejudice of Japanese against Koreans.
Reversing the tide, on the other hand as early as 2008, the closed-door and socialist state of North Korea from its ‘hermit kingdom’ heritage welcomed New York Philharmonic, powered and fostered by “cultural diplomacy” between the technical rival countries, the United States and North Korea. In the event, it was reported that North Koreans have opened their door to some 400 people, the largest contingent of Americans to visit this isolated, totalitarian state since the Korean War ended in 1953. The group includes musicians, orchestra staff, television production crews and 80 journalists, as well as patrons who paid US$100,000 a couple.
IV. The Impacts of Korean Wave
Globalization plays a bigger role in promoting Korean Wave so fast-paced. Whether in Youtube to boob tube and any other Internet mediums, and cable channels. Professor Kang Chul-keun asserts that Hanryu carries the spirit of popular culture that seeks and explores human universality. The fact that Asians started cultural exchanges through hanryu has another historical significance. Asians who have long been immersed in the Western popular culture have now found alternatives.
On the other hand, it also holds the spirit of traditional culture or cultural heritage which also befits modern society and its future promises. Traditional culture manifests its intrinsic meaning as a source of power which enables connection between the past, present and future. Modeling traditional culture as a spiritual body provides a ground in enriching the future creation of culture. There is a future in tradition - it is the motivating power in the creation of new cultures.
More so, there has been much talk about hanryu creating a higher Asian cultural community. It is apparent that through Asian soap operas, Asians who have experienced similar modernization processes have an increased sense of solidarity. Their envious look toward the West has changed. It is significant to understand that hanryu has forged stronger relations between Asian countries. In the long run, the higher objective of building an Asian cultural bloc should be reached.
Because of hanryu, pop-cultural tourism has also been encouraged into understanding cultural factors where traveling to locations featured in soap operas, literature, film, music and any other form of popular entertainment have been in demand.
Despite South Korea’s rapid economic growth and the hanryu phenomenon, immigrants and massive influx of tourists in Southeast Asia has been unprecedented, although in the ASEAN region, understanding of Korea needs to be further enhanced. However in the Philippines, for instance, Koreans consist of mostly expatriates from South Korea. The Philippines has opened its doors for Koreans in 2004 for business, education, and/or leisure purposes, ministry and popular destination for retirees on fixed pensions. Hence, top tourists arrivals in the country are now Koreans, outnumbering Americans, Japanese and European travelers. Koreatowns are also apparent in Metro Manila and Koreans also reside in quieter provinces of the country, but they are often criticized for keeping to themselves and forming a closed community. Changes are made now because of increasing interaction between the host country and the immigrants, wherein Koreans sometimes shine in the dynamic local entertainment industry and lucrative business sector in the Philippines.
V. Conclusion
Korea’s rapid economic dynamism since has been transparent on its engagement and participation to multilateral dialogues in East Asian region. Korea has been a dialogue partner of ASEAN since July 1991, and through the ASEAN plus Three multilateral framework of East Asian co-operation. It has been an active member of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM).
In the midst of these regional dynamics (Ho Kai Leong: 2007), ASEAN-Korea relations seem relatively neglected, and have been related to receiving marginal policy attention from Southeast Asian governments. As the ROK is a latecomer in establishing ties with Southeast Asian neighbors, it needs to catch up with other two Northeast Asian (China and Japan) neighbors in building and improving ASEAN relations.
In its relation with North Korea, Ambassador Sung-oh Shin (1999:47) still believes that security-related agreements or understanding between two Koreas are quite rare. Yet, there exist a few of such understandings, which also contribute to the mitigation of tension on the Korean Peninsula. The Declaration of Nuclear-free Korean Peninsula is a case in point.
The use of [South] Korea’s soft power diplomacy on how to confront strains and tensions between former enemies in Northeast Asia should be applied also to its political reconciliation with North Korea since the inception of the Sunshine Policy to contain North Korea’s Cold War-style confrontation.
The success of Korean wave is emanating through cultural domains around Asia from China, Japan, and Southeast Asia, and also conquering the vastness of Hollywood and Europe. Right now, ASEAN and South Korea (Hernandez: 2007) are the weakest of the four players within the ASEAN plus Three process. Given Korea’s status (Prasetyono: 2007) as an economic power, its lack of political ambitions, and its situation between Japan and China, mediation from it would be more acceptable to other Asian countries. Cooperation with ASEAN would therefore increase Korea’s strategic weight.
The advantage of South Korea to advance its Soft Power Diplomacy since hanryu is at the peak of its success in introducing and influencing Korean pop-culture to the rest of Asia is tolerable and acceptable. On the other hand, Korea sees many hindrances on how to exercise its power, away from the strength of its competing neighbors of China and Japan. In the process, South Korea would be vulnerable if it were left to deal with both China and Japan on its own.
It is therefore recommended that the [South] Korean government puts more effort into understanding these hindrances to achieve a leverage and favorable outcome and a more positive image away from the remnants of security disorders within the Korean peninsula, and emerge as a new economic force and catalyst supported by two of its gigantic economic neighbors. Only by understanding the hindrances and sustaining the success of the Korean Wave should South Korea attain the effectiveness it has set for Soft Power Diplomacy. As such, the two Koreas may have gather together their strengths and willingness to sacrifice each other’s defense and foreign policy differences in order to achieve the aims of the Soft Power Diplomacy. In the process, this will gradually build mutual confidence in each other which is essential basis for peaceful unification of the two Koreas and for the stability of the rest of Asia and the world.
References
Hernandez, Carolina (2007) Strengthening ASEAN-Korea Co-operation in Non-Traditional Security Issues, in Ho Khai Leong’s ASEAN-Korea Relations: Security, Trade and Community Building, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore.
Ho Khai Leong (2007) ASEAN-Korea Relations: Security, Trade and Community Building, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore.
Mahbubani, Kishore (2008) America’s Place in the Asian Century, Current History, May 2008 issue.
Nye, Joseph Jr. (2005) Soft Power: the Means to Success in World Politics, Political Science/Public Affairs and Administration. Amazon.com
Pobre, Cesar (2008) Role of Korea in the Peace and Security of the Asia-Pacific, National Security Review, National Defense College of the Philippines, Quezon City.
Prasetyono, Edy (2007) Next Steps in ASEAN-Korea Relations for East Asian Security, in Ho Khai Leong’s ASEAN-Korea Relations: Security, Trade and Community Building, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore.
Shin, Sung-oh (1999) Defense Policies of Korea, The Ambassador Speaks, National Defense College of the Philippines, Quezon City.
Electronic Sources
http://www.allacademic.com
http://www.korea.net
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KoreanWar
http://curlyjoe.gnn.tv/headlines/9334/South_Korean_Anti_Americanism
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_wave
http://www.nytimes.com
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